The three scholarly articles that make up this book examine affirmative action in economic terms, measuring and discussing the economic cost of racial discrimination in employment and the economic cost of equal opportunity enacted to combat discrimination and its effects. The short article by Andrew Brimmer, an economist who was the first black governor of the Federal Reserve Board, calculates the financial cost to the nation of racial discrimination in employment, education, and training. Cecilia Conrad's article surveys an array of experts and concludes that the direct financial costs to government and private industry of maintaining affirmative action policies is quite small; she also concludes that the popular perception of a productivity loss caused by affirmative action has little basis in demonstrable fact. Finally, Lee Badgett and Heidi Hartmann examine the many studies that have been done to assess the effectiveness of affirmative action policies in increasing employment and wage opportunities for both women and African Americans; they conclude that such policies have had measurable effects, though they have often been slight.