This volume presents a comprehensive overview of the scientific progress achieved in recent years in our knowledge of the early stages of the production of the elements and their cosmic evolution. It covers the chemical composition of different types of galactic and extra-galactic environments and interprets them in terms of galaxy formation and evolution. Thanks to high quality data collected at the largest ground-based telescopes in the world, our determination and theoretical interpretation of the chemical signatures of different stellar populations and stellar generations has become more accurate. This volume combines observational and theoretical results, and covers almost the entire Periodic Table, to present a clear picture of the main questions that remain unanswered, and suggestions on how to tackle them. Written for researchers and graduate students, the articles were presented at IAU S228, dedicated to the major scientific contributions of Monique and Francois Spite to this field of research.