Urbanization was an extremely rapid process in Europe in the late 19th century. Cities systematically followed and adopted new innovations. A system for following-up innovations developed, in which personal contacts, visits and study tours, statistical publications and urban exhibitions all played their own significant role. The administration of cities and the work of civil officials were especially competent in Germany. Under the leadership of the Burgomasters the cities were managed in the same way as business enterprises.

This study deals mainly with German cities but for purposes of comparison, the conditions in certain Brittish and Nordic cities are also discussed.