Students of modern Judaism have largely ignored the responsa literature as a source for comprehending the nature and development of Jewish history and thought during the last two hundred years. These original essays argue that the responsa, far from being unimportant to the investigation of the modern Jewish condition, provide a helpful framework for analyzing and understanding the story of the Jewish response to the modern world. The essays focus on issues of Jewish identity (intermarriage, patrilineal descent, and apostasy, among others) and reflect upon the variety of paths Orthodox Judaism has followed in response to the changed social and religious conditions of the modern era.